B.13. Aquifer Recharge, Storage and Recovery

Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects primarily serve as a drought mitigation technique but can be used to reduce flood risk, mitigate saltwater intrusion, and restore aquifers that have been subject to overdraft.

Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects are designed to lessen the impacts of drought to the water supply. Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects include increasing surface water infiltration into an aquifer to be stored for a period until it is needed and then recovered for use. This can be done through direct well injection, infiltration pits and basins, or surface spreading.

The concept of aquifer recharge, storage and recovery is to:

• Capture water when there is an abundant supply such as during a rainy season or during spring snow melts.
• Store the water in subsurface aquifers.
• Recover the water when needed. Storing water underground can help protect it from pollutants, evaporation and weather events as well as maintain stream flow during periods of low flow.

There are two types of aquifers, confined and unconfined:

• A confined aquifer is a closed system that, for these projects, can only be recharged using an injection well. The project design includes a “mixing zone,” which is created between the injected water and native groundwater to ensure variations in water quality are managed safely and effectively.
• An unconfined aquifer can be recharged either by using an injection well or by allowing surface water to infiltrate and seep into the aquifer. Through infiltration, the surface water helps replenish groundwater supplies; the surface water mixes with native groundwater and slowly flows through the aquifer. The appropriate method of recharge, source and treatment of water added to the aquifer is based on specific site conditions and may include drinking water, raw and/or partially treated surface water and, infrequently, raw groundwater or reclaimed water. Communities can recover the stored water from the aquifer by using a well and use the water as a fresh water supply.

As a drought mitigation technique, aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects offer advantages over other project types:

• Because aquifer recharge, storage and recovery is a subsurface storage technology, it is more resilient and protected than the alternative and more traditional storage technologies such as reservoirs or surface impoundments.
• The stored water in an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery system is protected from evaporation and extreme weather events.
• Unlike reservoirs or other surface storage, there is no potential for levee failure and downstream flooding.
• Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery can also protect freshwater supplies along coastal areas as a barrier or protection for saltwater intrusion driven by sea level rise.

The following sections highlight eligible activities and costs for aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects. Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects are eligible for assistance under HMGP, HMGP Post Fire, BRIC and FMA. To be eligible under FMA, an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project must provide flood mitigation benefits to NFIP participating communities and demonstrate the elimination of future claims against the NFIP.

Eligible aquifer recharge, storage and recovery activities may include:

• Data analyses/investigations directly related to the mitigation project (including groundwater and geotechnical investigations, water supply modeling, engineering reports, hydrogeological data collection and hydraulic analyses).
• Permitting costs and activities.
• Costs related to complying with local utility requirements.
• Site preparation, materials and construction.
• Professional services necessary to design, manage and implement the project.
• Project planning and design activities, including construction verification.
• Measures to avoid or treat adverse effects to historical properties and cultural resources.
• Drilling.
• Piping, injection wells, and extraction wells and associated equipment.
• Intake structures and associated piping/equipment.
• Pump stations.
• Infiltration basins.
• Monitoring wells.
• Water quality testing during system setup.
• Water treatment systems for injection and/or potable water supply.

Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects that address, without an increase in the level of protection, the operation, deferred or future maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration, repair or replacement of existing structures, facilities or infrastructure or that do not address drought and increased water supply to the community are not eligible.

In addition, ineligible costs associated with aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects include, but are not limited to, general geotechnical or hydraulic studies that are not specifically related to the project site of the proposed mitigation activity. However, engineering costs associated with the design (hydrologic and hydraulic calculations) and benefit cost are acceptable.

A general list of ineligible activities is included in Part 4.

Applicants and subapplicants must demonstrate that mitigation projects are cost-effective. Projects must be consistent with Part 5.

While the Office of Management and Budget Circular A-94: Guidelines and Discount Rates for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs describes an exemption for water resources projects (refer to the White House Council on Environmental Quality’sUpdated Principles, Requirements and Guidelines for Water and Land Related Resources Implementation Studies [PR&G] [Dec. 2014]), the cost-effectiveness requirement in the HMA program authorizing statutes must be met. The cost-effectiveness determination should be supplemented by consideration of the PR&G criteria if applicable.

The primary benefit of an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project is to enhance or increase water supply for drought mitigation by storing excess seasonal flood flows. The stored water can be pumped out of the aquifer (recovered), treated and used as a freshwater supply when additional water supply is needed, such as during periods of drought. To be used as a benefit for the FEMA BCA Toolkit, this water must be used primarily for services to the community, as the primary purpose of FEMA’s hazard mitigation programs is to protect life, buildings and infrastructure.

Communities may use aquifers for annual water resource management or longer-term water supply for more extreme needs. For example, they can recover only a portion of the stored water for use during high-demand times or seasonal dry periods and preserve a significant quantity of water in the aquifer for use during a drought. Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery systems can take advantage of the flexibility of using multiple types of source water and be designed and operated to help mitigate the effects of increased demand and drought in various communities with differing water resources.

At a minimum, the project application must identify the increased water supply capacity the aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project would provide in relation to the population that will be supported in a drought and during the project’s useful life. A recurrence interval for drought periods must be identified to use the BCA Toolkit.

Estimating the probability of a drought can be difficult because of historical data gaps and variance in annual weather patterns/precipitation. Both the public and private sector have available modeling information that may help inform recurrence intervals for drought. There is not currently a single methodology to establish a recurrence interval for drought, but FEMA encourages communities to use the best available data to document a recurrence interval based on historic trends.

An aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project may be designed in a way that also provides flood risk reduction. If a flood mitigation component can be demonstrated, the methodologies in the current BCA Toolkit can be used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the overall project. An aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project may provide additional benefits if the applicant can demonstrate a reduction in subsidence and reduce structural damage to homes and properties in the vicinity.

Projects must be consistent with Part 3. Mitigation projects assisted by HMA must be both feasible and effective at mitigating the risks of the hazard(s) for which the project was designed. A project’s feasibility is demonstrated through conformance with accepted engineering practices, established codes, standards, modeling techniques and best practices.

Some water use projects are subject to water rights laws, which vary by jurisdiction. In the western U.S., the process of obtaining water rights may take several years. Where possible, water rights should be obtained prior to application submission to prevent delays.

Additionally, state or local water use permits may be applicable. Any permits governing the ability to withdraw source water or abstract and use groundwater, including recharged groundwater, must be considered in the planning process for all aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects.

Appropriate site selection and an aquifer’s availability to a community are key items to evaluate when considering an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project for flood risk reduction and/or drought mitigation. Appropriate siting of the project and the specific site conditions will impact the project design, source of water for recharge, method of injecting or infiltrating the water, and efficiencies in recovering the water. Advances in hydrogeologic assessment techniques have made it easier to ensure proper selection of the project site and water storage zones in the aquifer.

During the project identification and planning phase potential contaminants to the underground water supply must be identified. The subapplicant should have a plan for managing potential leaching or contamination. The project application must address all potential impacts to environmental resources, including water quality, and provide the information necessary for FEMA to ensure compliance with environmental requirements. FEMA recommends that subapplicants consult federal, state and local regulatory agencies, as applicable, that provide permits and authorizations for aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects to ensure all requirements will be met for a project. Subapplicants should also consult technical experts when developing an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project to ensure the project is in an appropriate site and necessary methods and measures are in place to preserve water quality standards.

All subapplications submitted to FEMA must meet the EHP criteria in Part 4. All subapplications must provide the information described in Part 6 so that FEMA may perform the EHP review. FEMA, in consultation with appropriate federal and state agencies, will use the information provided in the application to ensure compliance with EHP requirements. This may include demonstrating methods to incorporate public participation in the review process and/or mitigate any EHP impacts resulting from the mitigation action.

Project applications must include the necessary data and information for FEMA to conduct the appropriate EHP review. Because of the underground storage nature of aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects, the project application should address issues and methods to monitor and protect the stored water from potential contaminants. Additional permits, such as a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit (under the Clean Water Act), or state and/or local permits or approvals, may be applicable to aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects. States may also have groundwater standards that may be incorporated in permits and authorizations that should be addressed.

Issues and methods should include consideration of the impacts, if any, of injected water on native water quality and potential sources of contamination from the injected water or leaching from the aquifer walls into the underground water supply. FEMA, in consultation with appropriate federal and state agencies, uses the information provided in the application to ensure compliance with EHP requirements. Aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects also must comply with EPA’s Underground Injection Control program (under the Safe Drinking Water Act), which regulates injection well operations to prevent the contamination of underground sources of drinking water. Therefore, FEMA determines whether all the requirements of the Underground Injection Control program are satisfied when considering aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects for HMA.

In some cases, the Environmental Protection Agency Underground Injection Control program has been delegated to states, territories and tribes for implementation or local governmental authority may have additional requirements. Applicants must verify that the requirements of the agency with jurisdiction over the aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project, if any, are met.

All subapplications submitted to FEMA must meet the eligibility criteria in Part 4. All subapplications must have a scoping narrative in accordance with Part 6. Project-specific criteria are highlighted below.

FEMA may request additional information after the subapplication has been submitted to ensure all necessary information is received. However, all information required by the regulations and the HMA Guide must be received before an assistance decision and award or final approval can be made. For aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects, the subapplication must include the following:

• Site map(s) and location information including the water sources within the service area and the population that will be impacted.
• Site photographs of the proposed project area.
• Narrative of the drought risk being mitigated, including drought history and projected trends in the service area, if available.
• Description of the existing conditions of the project area, such as the existing infrastructure and existing condition of the aquifer.
• Description of how the project will reduce drought impacts and specify the increased water supply the project will provide.
• Description of the population that will benefit from the project.
• Description of the water source(s) for the project.
• Description of all local, state and federal permitting requirements.
• Documentation to demonstrate that the subapplicant has obtained all necessary water rights for the project, if applicable.
• Documentation of at least two alternatives that were considered as part of the planning process. One alternative may be a “no action alternative” that would reflect the impacts if no action were taken. Describe why the selected project was the most practical, effective and environmentally sound alternative.
• Description of proposed activity, including timelines, deliverables and tasks required to complete the proposed activity.
• Documentation that the project can independently solve the problem and is a functional portion of a solution. Projects that are dependent on a contingent action to be effective or feasible are not eligible.
• Description of the project components (e.g., materials, structural design, maintenance, and how the project will fit in with surrounding systems).
• Description of construction activities (e.g., site access, storage and security; site preparation; temporary construction; earthwork, including importation of fill or disposal of fill; installation of conveyance features; installation of injection well; and repairs to infrastructure that might be damaged during construction, such as temporary or permanent relocation of utilities

In addition to the items identified in Part 6, the following technical data is required:

• Design plans, specifications and engineering analysis (such as design calculations and minimum level of protection provided by the project).
• Hydrologic, geologic and hydrogeologic information (e.g., hydrologic and hydraulic models, aquifer types, aquifer and vadose zone characteristics, subsurface homogeneity/heterogeneity, hydrologic conductivity, transmission rates, storage coefficients and water temperatures).
• System water balance, demand studies and safe yield calculations.

Because of the technical and complex nature of some aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects, FEMA may request additional information to determine/demonstrate technical feasibility and cost-effectiveness and to complete required EHP reviews.

All subapplications must include a line-item breakdown of all anticipated costs.

Subapplicants may apply for subrecipient management costs to cover administrative costs. Management costs must be included in the subapplication budget as a separate line item. More information about the requirements for management cost requests can be found in Part 13.

A detailed schedule must be provided for all tasks identified in the project cost estimate and scope of work. The schedule must identify major milestones, with start and end dates for each activity. Project schedules must show completion of all activities including the construction period within the period of performance. Sufficient detail must be provided to document that the project can be completed within the period of performance.

Typical costs for an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project may include but are not limited to:

• Engineering and design services and cost estimate preparation.
• Data analysis/investigations directly related to the mitigation project, including geotechnical investigations, engineering reports, and hydrologic and hydraulic analyses.
• Construction management.
• Surveying and inspection.
• Water quality sampling.
• Permitting and/or legal fees.
• All construction activities and materials required for project completion.
• Disconnecting and reconnecting utilities and extending lines and pipes as necessary.
• Complying with local utility requirements.
• Debris disposal and erosion control.
• Costs for repair of lawns, landscaping, sidewalks or driveways, if damaged by the project.

The following are the basic steps in implementing an approved HMA aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project:

1. Pre-construction (acquire land, if applicable; carry out design process; seek technical consultant; prepare cost estimate; obtain construction permits; hire construction manager/contractor).
2. Clear/prepare site and install erosion control measures to prepare for construction activities.
3. Complete excavation, drilling, foundation work and grading.
4. Construct project.
5. Relocate/restore utility lines.
6. Complete inspections.

Post-award monitoring helps ensure subrecipients are achieving the objectives of the federal award consistent with the performance goals and milestones described in the subaward. To assist the recipient in monitoring aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects, the following milestone information or events should be included in Quarterly Progress Reports:

• If the subrecipient is acquiring contract support, the subrecipient should report when the request for proposal is completed, when the contract is out for bid, when the bid period closes, when proposals are reviewed, when the contractor is selected, and the date of the kickoff meeting.
• Describe the current status including a summary of:
  • Recent progress and planned work.
  • Risks identified or changes from the milestones/deliverables submitted with the scope of work (e.g., financial concerns, coordination issues with state or local governments and utilities, project management or contracting issues, legal disputes, and significant changes impacting construction activities or timelines such as delays due to weather, materials, procurement or labor issues).
  • When construction has started, is substantially complete or completed.
• If property is purchased, the report should provide property address, purchase price and date.
• Any other milestones that have been identified in the subapplication, agreed to or are required by the recipient.

All budget and scope changes must have prior FEMA approval consistent with Part 8. Construction design activities are defined as construction activities; therefore, budget changes involving them must be consistent with Part 8.F.2.

Because the final design may not be completed prior to award, once the project is awarded, the design must be finalized by a licensed professional engineer. If the scope of work or cost estimate changes because of completing the final design or to address permitting requirements, prior approval from FEMA is required.

Recipients and subrecipients must closeout projects in a timely manner consistent with Part 9.

Upon completing an aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project, the authority having jurisdiction over the project must submit to the recipient a final verification assurance that the HMA aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project was constructed as designed and in accordance with the approved scope of work. This documentation is included as project closeout documentation and must confirm that the aquifer recharge, storage and recovery project provides the designed level of protection.

Closeout of aquifer recharge, storage and recovery projects includes the submittal of an operations and maintenance plan to FEMA for review prior to subaward closeout. In the plan, the recipient must confirm the plan is consistent with the HMA Guide, meets or exceed local codes, and is in conformance with appropriate permits. At a minimum, the operations and maintenance plan must include the following information:

• Information demonstrating the completed project will be maintained to achieve the proposed hazard mitigation.
• A description of the post-closeout maintenance activities that will be completed to maintain the project area.
• The period of time the community is committing to maintaining the area and/or project site, which must be consistent with the project useful life in the BCA.
• The department and job position that will be responsible for the project after construction has ended. Estimated costs for annual maintenance of the project.
• The schedule for completion of the maintenance activities.